In Search of Structural Reform in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Graduate Education Programs and the Professoriate: An Annotated Bibliography

Data Compendiums on Undergraduate and Graduate Students¾ A Sampling of Sources

• American Council on Education: Wilds, Deborah J. and Wilson, Reginald. Minorities in Higher Education:  Seventeenth Annual Status Report. 2000. Washington, DC: Author. 
• Astin, A.W., Green, K.C., Korn, W.S. & E.R. Riggs.  1991. The American Freshman:  National Norms for Fall 1991.  Los Angeles, CA:  Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA
• Bowen, William, G., and Bok, Derek. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions. 1998. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. This study of 45,184 students, who entered 28 selective colleges in the fall of 1976 or the fall of 1989, examines how students who benefited from racial preferences have fared both during and after college. 
• Carnevale, A., and Fry, R.  Achieving Equity As Generation Y Goes to College:  New Data.  2000.  Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.  This study suggests "that the combined undergraduate populations at the nation's public, prviate and community colleges will grow to close to 16 million students in 2015.  The highests levels of racial/etchnic diversity at colleges/universities will be clustered in particular regions of the country.  Minority student enrollments will rise, with Hispanic students registering the largest absolute gains.  Yet, despite steady gains in the absolute numbers of minority students going to college, the percentage of 18-24 year old African American and Hispanic undergraduates still lags behind both groups' share of the general 18-24 year old population in 2015."
• Center for Institutional  Data Exchange and Analysis (C-IDEA).  (http://www.occe.ou.edu/csrde).  Consortium of more than 350 colleges and universities.  Its goal is to meet the needs of a national SMET retention database.
• Commission on Professional in Science and Technology. Professional Women & Minorities: A Total Human Resources Data Compendium. June 1997. Washington, DC: Author. A comprehensive reference book of data on human resources presented in nearly 400 tables and charts, with breakouts by sex and race/ethnicity. Data on enrollments, degrees and the general, academic, and federal workforce by field and subfield. 
• Council of Economic Advisors, for the President's Initiative on Race. Changing America: Indicators of Social and Economic Well-Being by Race and Hispanic Origin. September 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. This chart book documents current differences in well-being by race and Hispanic Origin and also describes how such differences have evolved over the past several decades. 
• Denes, Ronni, and Highsmith, Robert. National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering (NACME) Research Letter. New York, NY: NACME. This data report is published periodically by NACME to share the findings of its research department. 
• Hill, Susan. 1997. Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, 1989-1995, NSF 97-334. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. Presents data and statistical tables based on two surveys: the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics' survey of all accredited higher education institutions and the Survey of Earned Doctorates, a universe survey of individual doctorate recipients sponsored by NSF and four other federal agencies. 
• Mervis, Jeffrey. Science. "Wanted-A Better Way to Boost Numbers of Minority Ph.D.s." August 28, 1998, Vol. 281, No. 5381, p. 1268. This article, and its accompanying database- (http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/2811268.shl)-points out the underrepresentation of minorities in SME fields. The article makes note of the political climate and discusses alternative approaches that majority institutions are using in order to achieve diversity. The database provides data on numbers of minority Ph.D.s awarded by field and institution. 
• National Collegiate Athletic Association. 1998. 1998 NCAA Division I Graduate-Rates Report. Overland Park, KS: Author. 1991-92 graduate data, disaggregated by gender and race, for Division I member institutions, including a summary of data for enrollment, admissions, graduate rates, academic standards, time spent to graduate and degree programs are presented for all student athletes. 
• National Science Board. 2000. Science & Engineering Indicators 2000. NSB 00-1. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. Provides a plethora of quantitative and qualitative information on SME. Topics covered include the following: elementary and secondary education; SME higher education; SME workforce; U.S. and international research and development; academic R&D; industry, technology and competitiveness in the marketplace; public attitudes and understanding toward SME; and economic and social significance of information technologies. 
• National Science Foundation. Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering:  1998.  NSF 99-338.  February 1999.  Arlington, VA:  Author.    Provides a plethora of data as well as information on research and studies with respect to the participation of women, minorities and persons with disabilities in science and engineering.
• National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies, Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences. Doctoral Scientists and Engineers in the United States: 1995 Profile. NSF 99-305. November 1998. Arlington, VA: Author. Profiles the demographic and employment characteristics of doctoral-level scientists and engineers in the U.S. 
• National Science Foundation. Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering: Fall 1995. 1997. NSF 97-312. Arlington, VA: Author. Data based from the NSF/National Institutes of Health survey of graduate students and postdoctorates in science and engineering, Fall 1995. 
• National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies. Academic Research and Development Expenditures:  Fiscal Year 1996, by Marge Machen.  1998.   NSF 98-304.  Arlington, VA:  Author.
• National Science Foundation.  Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering:  Fall 1995.  1997.  NSF 97-312.  Arlington, VA:  Author.   Data based from the NSF/National Institutes of Health survey of graduate students and postdoctorates in science and engineering, Fall 1995. 
• National Science Foundation.  1994.  Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering:  1994.    NSF 96-311. Arlington, VA:  Author.  As noted in the Highlights section, “this report presents a comprehensive statistical overview of the participation of women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering.
• Programs for Educational Opportunity, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Equity Coalition for Race, Gender and National Origin. Fall 1993-Spring 1994. Vol. III, No. 2. and Spring 1996, Vol. IV, Number 1. Ann Arbor, MI: School of Education. This publication is published by Programs for Educational Opportunity, a desegregation center at the University of Michigan School of Education, funded by the Department of Education. The two volumes cited contain a wealth of information. Topics covered include racial harassment in education, race equity and science education, gender and science and model science equity programs. 
• Quality Education for Minorities (QEM) Network.  Leading Producers of Minority Doctoral Degree Recipients in Mathematics, the Physcial Sciences, and Engineering 1990-1997.  February 2000.  Washington, DC:  Author.  This is an update to Weaving the Web.
• Quality Education for Minorities (QEM) Network. Weaving the Web of MSE Success for Minorities: Top Ten Colleges and Universities Report. June 1997. Washington, DC: Author. QEM surveyed the provosts of the "top ten" institutions in the following locations: Alabama, Arizona, California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Puerto Rico to identify programs, services or circumstances on the "top ten" campuses that might explain the relative success of these institutions in graduating non-Asian minorities.

• American Society for Engineering Education and the Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology. Employment and Salaries of Recent Doctoral Graduates in Engineering: Comprehensive Findings. 1998. Washington, DC: Authors. Report is separated into 13 engineering disciplines; provides information on the employment experiences of recent engineering Ph.D. graduates. Based on data collected by ASEE between fall 1997 and June 30, 1998. 
• American Society for Engineering Education and the Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology. Employment and Salaries of Recent Doctoral Graduates in Engineering: Broad Overview. 1998. Washington, DC: Authors. Presents an overview on the employment experiences of recent engineering Ph.D. graduates. Based on data collected by ASEE between fall 1997 and June 30, 1998. 
• Blackwell, James, E. Mainstreaming Outsiders: The Production of Black Professionals, Second Edition. 1987. Dix Hills, New York: General Hall, Inc. Examines the students' efforts and experiences-with a focus on African American students-to move into the educational mainstream through the acquisition of graduate and professional degrees. Trend data for the years 1970-1985 are analyzed for the fields of medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, pharmacy, optometry, social work, veterinary medicine and graduate education. Barriers such as poor, systematic minority graduate school recruitment, standardized test scores, lack of interest, economic concerns are discussed. Recommendations such as raising questions and examining institutional behavior, quality of the teaching and learning environment, recruitment and retention of black faculty, renewed commitment of equality and opportunity (e.g., searches for funding sources and maintenance of provisions for financial aid; scholarship monies; educational outreach programs; college enrichment and academic support services, programs to reduce attrition and to enable all students to complete their training successfully with confidence, etc.) are outlined. 
• Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. Careers in Science and Engineering: A Student Planning Guide to Grad School and Beyond.An online document. [http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/careers/]. 1996. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. This is a guide for use by SME undergraduate and graduate students in order to make career and educational choices. 
• Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology.  Postdocs and Career Prospects:  A Status Report.  June 1997.  Washington, DC:  Author.  Examines postdoctoral appointments.
• Davis, Cinda-Sue, Ginorio, Angela, Hollenshead, Carol, Lazarus, Barbara, and Rayman, Paula.  The Equity Equation:  Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics and Engineering.  1996.  San Francisco:  Jossey-Bass Publishers.  Presents the findings and recommendations of leading experts on research and practices concerning women in science, mathematics and engineering. 
• Kahle, Jane Butler and Matyas, Marsha Lakes. "Equitable Science and Mathematics Education: A Discrepancy Model." In L.S. Dix (Ed.) Women: Their Underrepresentation and Career Differentials in Science and Engineering. 1987. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 
• Massy William, Goldman, Charles. 1995.  The Production and Utilization of Science and Engineering Doctorates in the United States. Stanford Institute for Higher Education.  Data on 13 science and engineering fields from 210 doctorate-granting institutions were analyzed.  "About 22% of the new doctorates could fail to find suitable employment when the supply-demand system achieves steady state based on the conditions prevailing in the early 1990s."
• Matyas, Marsha Lakes and Collins, M. "Minority Women:  Conquering Both Sexism and Racism.  1985.  " In Jane Butler Kahle (Ed.), Women in Science: A Report from the Field. Sussex, England: Taylor and Francis. 
• Pearson, Willie and Warner, Isiah. "Mentoring Experiences of African American Ph.D. Chemists." In Frierson, Jr., H.T. (Ed.) Diversity in Higher Education: Volume II. Examining Mentoring Protege Experiences. 1999. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. 
• Matyas, Marsha Lakes and Haley-Oliphant, A. (Eds.) Women Life Scientists: Past, Present, and Future. 1997. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society. 
• Pearson, Willie and Fechter, Alan (Eds.) Who Will do Science? Educating the Next Generation. 1994. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 
• Pearson, Willie. "Educational and Career Experiences of African American Ph.D. Scientists," in Building Diversity in the Scientific Workforce (NSF 98-37). 1998. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. 
• Rodriguez, Carlos. Minorities in Science and Engineering: Patterns for Success. 1993. University of Arizona, unpublished dissertation. Explores the bases of minority student persistence in S&E using statistical and qualitative methods.
• Salters, Roger. E. "Pursuing the Ph.D. in the Sciences and Engineering: Trends and Observations." New Directions for Higher Education, No. 99. Fall 1997. Jossey-Bass Publishers. As noted in the article's summary, "the recruiting paradigm and employment trends for engineering Ph.D.'s imply that we should shift our efforts to support graduate students through doctoral study. Recruiting and retaining women and minority candidates require a multifaceted approach." 
• Sample, S.B.  Postdoctoral Education in America.  September 23, 1993. Address delivered at the annual meeting of the Association of Graduate Schools, Chapel, Hill, NC.  The speaker recommended that both the Association of Graduate Schools and the Association of American Universities undertake a study of the academic postdoctorate in the US.  Issues such as the lack of good data counts as well as the abundance of foreign postdoctorates were addressed.
• Tang, Joyce.  2000.  Doing Engineering:  The Career Attainment and Mobility of Caucasian, Black, and Asian-American Engineers.  Lanham, MD:  Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
• Tang, Joyce. "The Glass Ceiling in Science and Engineering." Journal of Socio-Economics, 1997, Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 383-406. 
• Tang, Joyce. "The Model Minority Thesis Revisited: (Counter) Evidence from the Science and Engineering Fields." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 1997, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 291-315. 
• Tang, Joyce. "To Be or Not to Be Your Own Boss: A Comparison of White, Black, and Asian Scientists and Engineers." In Lopata, H.Z. and Figert, A.E. (Eds.) Current Research on Occupations and Professions. 1996, Vol. 9, pp. 129-165. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. 
• Tang, Joyce, with Smith, E. Women and Minorities in American Professions. 1996. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 
• Tobias, Sheila, Chubin, Daryl and Aylesworth, Kevin.  Rethinking Science As A Career:  Perceptions and Realities in the Physical Sciences.  1995.  Tucson:  Research Corporation.

• American Council on Education and the American Association of University Professors.  2000.  Does Diversity Make a Difference?  Three Research Studies on Diveristy in College Classrooms.   Presents findings from a survey of 570 faculty members at Research I institutions.  Study indicates that many value racial and ethnic diversity on campus.
• Association of American Colleges & Universities. (http://www.aacu-edu.org/Initiatives/legacies.html). "Racial Legacies and Learning: An American Dialogue." This project fosters campus/community dialogues that address issues of race. Sponsored by the Ford Foundation, the project is organized around the question "How can higher education, with its local communities, prepare graduates to address the legacies of racism and the opportunities for racial reconciliation in the United States?" The site contains information on the various dialogues on race; campus-community study dialogues; a guide to campus-community partnerships; and information on setting up a campus/community partnership. 
• Jacoby, Tamar. Someone Else's House: American's Unfinished Struggle for Integration. 1998. The author, a senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute, is against preferences and set-asides for minorities, and advocates the exploration of more constructive solutions. Jacoby profiles race relations and struggle for integration during the 1960's in New York City, Detroit and Atlanta. She sees both blacks and white abandoning the hopeful consensus that formed around Dr. King's vision of a single, shared community-this very issue prevents constructive debate about issues like affirmative action and the ghetto. 

• Broome, Jr., Taft H. "The Heroic Mentorship." Science Communication, June 1996. Vol. 17 No. 4. pp. 398-429. The author questions if mentoring "is toxic [here used to mean detrimental to the student] to scientific research and, if yes, does moral education transmit the toxin? Is character development its antidote?" 
• Chronister and Baldwin (in press--book to be released in December 2000 by Johns Hopkins University Press). Teaching Without Tenure:  Policies and Practices for a New Era. Eighty-eight four-year institutions were surveyed, to include 385 academics on 12 campuses. Researchers also used U.S. Department of Education data. Initial findings conclude that the hiring practice of using non-tenure track, full-time professors will continue. 
• Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. Adviser, Teacher, Role Model, Friend: On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering. 1997. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. This guide-intended for faculty members, teachers, administrators, and others who advise and mentor students of science and engineering-attempts to summarize features that are common to successful mentoring relationships. Its goal is to encourage mentoring habits that are in the best interests of both parties to the relationship. 
• Knowles, Majorie Fine and Harleston, Bernard W.  Achieving Diversity in the Professoriate:  Challenges and Opportunities, A Report for the American Council on Education.  1997.  Washington, DC:  Author.    Presidents/Chancellors from eleven research universities participated in a Ford Foundation study.  The authors conducted site visits to these institutions.  Barriers to increasing the number of minority faculty members and minority graduate students were reported as well as initiatives that have been undertaken to reduce such barriers.
• Smith, Daryl, G. with Wolf, Lisa, E., and Busenberg, Bonnie, E. Achieving Faculty Diversity: Debunking the Myths. Association of American Colleges and Universities. The career experiences of close to 400 white men and women and minority scholars from three prestigious fellowship programs offer a broad overview of the current job market for new faculty. 
• Southern Regional Education Board.  Diversity in College Faculty:  SREB States Address a Need.  A Special Report from the Doctoral Scholars Program.  1999.  Atlanta, GA:  Author.  Noting the paucity of racial/ethnic minority faculty, the report provides a brief description of the problem and highlights efforts undertaken by the Southern Regional Education Board to overcome this problem.

• An Ad hoc Panel on Graduate Attrition, Advisory Committee, Office of Science and Engineering Personnel. The Path to the Ph.D.: Measuring Attrition in Science and Humanities. 1996. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 
• Benally, S., Bloom, A.H., Butler, J., Cortes, C., Dill, B.T., Duster, T., McTighe Musil C., Pemberton G., Schneider, C., Treisman, U., Wong, F. The Drama of Diversity and Democracy: Higher Education and American Commitments. 1995. Three reports were produced: (1) The Drama of Diversity and Democracy: Higher Education and American Commitments; (2) Liberal Learning and the Arts of Connection in the New Academy; and (3) American Pluralism and the College Curriculum: Higher Education in a Diverse Democracy. Washington, DC: AAC&U. 
• Campbell, Jr., George, Denes, Ronni and Morrison, Catherine (Eds.)  2000.  Access Denied:  Race, Ethnicity, and the Scientific Enterprise.  New York:  Oxford University Press.  This book is the outcome of the NACME Research and Policy Conference on Minorities in Science, Engineering and Matehmatics.
• Cole, Michael and Griffin, Peg (Eds.)  1987.  Contextual Factors in Education: Improving Science and Mathematics Education for Minorities and Women.  WI:  Wisconsin Center for Education Research.  The editors, in collaboration with over 30 researchers from across the nation pulled together a number of ideas, findings and speculations on addressing the issues of creating constructive educational environments for women and minorities.
• College Board.  1999.  Reaching the Top:  A Report of the National Task Force on Minority High Achievement.  New York:  Author.  In 1997 the College Board organized the National Task Force on Minority High Achievement to study and make recommendations on the shortage of underrepresented minority students who are achieving at academically high levels.  The Task Force concluded that the limited presences of underrepresented students amont top students is a product of several forces.  The report offers discussion and recommendations.
• Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. Evaluating Federal Research Programs: Research and the Government Performance and Results Act. 1999. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 
• Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. National Convocation on Science and Engineering Doctoral Education: A National Conversation on Doctoral Education--An Emerging Consensus. [http://www2.nas.edu/convo/20fe.html] 1996. Online proceedings. The National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (COSEPUP) cosponsored a National Convocation on Doctoral Science and Engineering Education entitled, From Discussion to Action: Meeting the Needs of Future Generations of Graduate Scientists and Engineers. The convocation took place on June 15, 1996 at the National Academy of Sciences Building in Washington, DC. With respect to MGE, several suggestions were made. A few follow: "1) universities must be free to admit and employ the most talented applicants, and that it is important to cultivate excellence in science and math among all segments of our population. Given current demographic trends, present "minorities" (including women and nonwhite men and women) will soon constitute the majority of our population. If our universities are to retain their world leadership in science and engineering education, they must both support stronger K-16 science and math education and seek out for graduate study the most talented individuals in all U.S. population groups. Only the best programs and teachers will attract the best students of tomorrow." 
• Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. 1995. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. As noted in an NRC newsbrief, "the graduate education of scientists and engineers -- an activity of growing importance in an increasingly technological world -- must change to reflect developments in science, engineering, the economy, and the broader society. With more than half of new PhDs going to work in nonacademic settings, graduate education needs to impart a broader range of skills. At the same time, the PhD should retain the features, including an original research experience, that have made it a world model." The report provides detailed recommendations. 
• Healy, Patrick. "Officials at College in Ohio Held Personally Liable in Suit Over Affirmative Action." The Chronicle of Higher Education (online version: http://www.chronicle.com). November 2, 1998. Article reports on suit against the president, two vice presidents and nine trustees of the Cuyahoga Community College District. Such were held personally liable for damages in a lawsuit over an affirmative-action policy. 
• Healy, Patrick. "Ruling on High School's Use of Racial Preferences Has Implications for Higher Education." The Chronicle of Higher Education (online version: http://www.chronicle.com). November 23, 1998. Articles reports that a three-member panel of the U.S. Court for Appeals for the First Circuit ruled that the Boston Latin School, an elite public high school, violated the constitutional rights of a white applicant by using entrance criteria that resulted in her rejection, while minority students with lower grades and test scores were admitted. 
• Klein, Susan, S. (Ed.)  Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education.  1989.   Baltimore, MD:  Johns Hopkins University Press.  More than 200 researchers, evaluators, developers, disseminators and practitioners with expertise in sex equity and education worked together to develop this handbook.  The main goal of the text is to "aid in the achievement of sex equity through education by hgelping individuals use educational strategies to attain sex equity in society.
• National Science Board. The Federal Role in Science and Engineering Graduate and Postdoctoral Education. February 26, 1998. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. In this report the National Science Board states that the Federal Government's role in graduate and postdoctoral education is critical. A number of recommendations (e.g., explore strategies to attract and retain talented students from underrepresented groups) on adjustments to increase the effectiveness of Federal policies and programs in this arena are made. 
• National Science and Technology Council.  Ensuring a Strong U.S. Scientific, Technical, and Engineering Workforce in the 21st Century.  April 2000.  Washington, DC:  Office of Science and Technology Policy.  An Interagency Working Group conducted an assessment of the ST&E workforce.  A number of recommendations aimed at post-secondary school efforts are made.
• National Science and Technology Council, Committee on Science.  U.S. Science, Engineering & Technology Workforce of the Future:  National Strategy, National Portfolio, National Resource Base.  July 1998.  Washington, DC:  Author.  Documents the proceedings from a workshop that convened more than 60 national experts in SMET research and education and human resources development.
•  President’s Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans.  Our Nation on the Fault Line:  Hispanic American Education,  September 1996, and Update to the Report, April 1998.  Washington, DC:  Author.  The report outlines the issues and concerns that affect the status of Hispanic educational attainment.  Key Findings and Recommendations for all educational levels are provided.
• Tobias, Sheila.  They're Not Dumb, They're Different:  Stalking the Second Tier.  1990.  Tucscon, AZ:  Research Corporation.  This is an occasional paper on neglected problems in science education.
• U.S.  Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary Education, Higher Education Programs.  Leadership Summit on Diversity in Doctoral Education:  Creating Greater Opportunities in the New Millennium. May 2000.  Washington, DC:  Author.  Proceedings of a conference sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education and Howard University.

• Beatty, A. Greenwood, M.R.C., and Linn R. (Eds.)  Steering Committee for the Workshop on Higher Education Admissions, National Research Council. Myths and Tradeoffs:  The Role of Tests in Undergraduate Admissions. 1999.  Washington, DC:  National Academy Press.  This report examines the use of standardized tests in college admissions.  Although it makes note of severals lawsuits--which resulted from the use of test scores--the report does not cover the legality of using test scoress. Rather, it focuses on higher education institutions' academic goals.
• Aronson, J., Lustina, M.J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, Claude. "When White Men Can't Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1999, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 29-46. Based upon research on stereotype threat, the article "suggests that the social stigma of intellectual inferiority borne by certain cultural minorities can undermine the standardized test performance and school outcomes of members of these groups." Two assumptions were tested; results are discussed. 
• Educational Testing Service for the Graduate Record Examinations Board. GRE Practicing to Take the Biology Test. 1995. Princeton, NJ: Author. Designed to help potential graduate students prepare to take the GRE Biology Test, this guide contains the actual 1994 test, sample questions, information about the purpose of the GRE subject tests, a detailed description of the content specifications for the GRE Biology Test, and a description of the procedures for developing the test. 
• Educational Testing Service for the Graduate Record Examinations Board. Graduate Record Examinations. (print copy and online version-http://www.gre.org). 1998. Princeton, NJ: Author. This bulletin provides information on the GRE examination, registration, and test locations. 
• Perlstein, Linda. "Study Questions SAT Coaching's Impact." The Washington Post (online version: www.washingtonpost.com). November, 25, 1998, page A2. Article reports that a College Board study found that special Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) coaching programs do relatively little to raise test scores. 
• Steele, Claude. "A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance." American Psychologist. 1997, Vol. 52, No. 6, pp. 613-629. Article discuses achievement barriers faced by women and African Americans in advanced quantitative areas. 

• Adams, Elaine P. "Benjamin Banneker Honors College: Gateway to Scientific and Technical Doctorates." Journal of Negro Education. 1990, Vol. 59, No. 3. The author discusses the significance of Benjamin Banneker Honors College in producing Black baccalaureates who achieve the doctorate. 
• Brazziel, William, F., and Brazziel, Marien, E. , "Distinctives of High Producers of Minority Science and Engineering Doctoral Starts." Journal of Science Education and Technology, 1997, Vol. 6, No. 2. With NSF funding, the authors queried the National Research Council's science and engineering doctorate recipients database in order to identify the institutions which awarded baccalaureates to Blacks, American Indians and Hispanics for the period 1988-93. Using this data, site visits were conducted to selective institutions, the goal being to identify the top producers for these group as well as identifying the best practices used as these institutions to retain these groups. The authors developed a "Developing Minority Science and Engineering Doctoral Starts" checklist. 
• Brennan, Mairin, B. "Graduate School: Smoothing the Passage." C&EN, January 25, 1999. pp. 11-19. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. C&EN surveyed 20 Deans at leading research institutions on graduate student suicide statistics. "The Deans were asked to provide their perceptions on the stress level of graduate school in chemistry and the other physical science compared with the humanities and to describe support systems that their institutions have in place for graduate students." 
• Etzkowitz, Henry, Kemelgor, Carol, Neuschatz, Michael, Uzzi, Brian and Alonzo, Joseph.   Science "The Paradox of Critical Mass for Women in Science."  7 October 1994.  Vol. 266, No. 5182, p. 51.  The authors studied 30 academic science departments in five disciplines, interviewing 155 female graduate students and faculty members.  The article reports findings and policy implications.
• Hummel, Mary, and Steele, Claude. "The Learning Community: A Program to Address Issues of Academic Achievement and Retention." Journal of Intergroup Relations, Summer 1996, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 28-32. Article discusses the 21^st Century Program at the University of Michigan. This program focuses on academic achievement and student retention in higher education. 
• McTighe, Musil, Caryn with Garcia, Mildred, Moses, Yolanda, T., and Smith, Daryl. Diversity in Higher Education: A Work in Progress. Association of American Colleges and Universities. The authors, who were elected by the Ford Foundation, evaluated the work of the first nineteen institutions awarded Ford diversity initiative grants. Items discussed include the following: project descriptions, faculty and curriculum development process, research and resource development, and profiles of student-oriented projects. 
• Nyquist, Jody and Woodford, Bettina.  2000.  Re-Envisioning the Ph.D.  What Concerns Do We Have?  Center for Instructional Development and Research and the University of Washington.  Documents concerns about Ph.D. education as identified by institutions preparing Ph.D.s, by graduate students, and by those who hire Ph.Ds.
• Orfield, G. and Whitla, D.  Diversity and Legal Education:  Student Experiences in Leading Law Schools.  1999.  The Civil Rights Project, Harvard University.  The report reviews the impact of diversity on the educational experiences of 1,820 law students enrolled at Harvard and the University of Michigan.  "Learning alongside students of different racial and ethnic backgrounds significantly enhanced the educational experiences of law students."
• Pearson, Willie, Thomas, G.E., and Clewell, Beatriz Chu. "A Case Study of Major Doctoral Producing Institutions in Recruiting, Enrolling, and Retaining Black and Hispanic Graduate Students," in Jones, J.M., Gertz, M.E., and Kuh, C.V. (Eds.) Minorities in Graduate Education: Pipeline, Policy and Practice. 1992. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. 
• Pister, Karl. "Fixing the Educational Pipeline." Forefront. 1990. College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley. 
• Steele, Claude. "Race and the Schooling of Black Americans." Atlantic, April 1992, Vol. 269, No. 4, pp. 68-78. Article discusses obstacles Black Americans encounter while in college. 
• Stephens, Angela. "Fighting Back the Chill." Black Issues in Higher Education. February 18, 1999. (http://www.blackissues.com/html/cover-story.htm). Articles notes that although some institutions may have an unfavorable climate toward minority students due to anti-affirmative action legislation, neighboring institutions housed in areas unaffected by such legislation, are taking "advantage" of the situation. 
• Tsapogas, John, Cahalan, Margaret, and Stowe, Peter,  1994. Academic Institutional Characteristics and the Educational and Labor Market Outcomes of Recent College Graduates:  An Exploratory Analysis.
• Volkwein, Fredericks, J. and Litten, Lary (Eds.). New Directions for Institutional Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. This journal provides a plethora of information geared toward institutional researchers. Topics include graduate student retention and degree attainment, funding; quality assurance, campus climate, etc. 
• Wagner, Ursula. Environments of Support. 1992. Washington, DC: American Council on Education, Office of Minorities in Higher Education. This reports highlights supportive environments for African Americans, American Indians, Hispanics and U.S. born Asian Americans in doctoral programs. Some supportive environments mentioned include aggressive and targeted recruitment efforts; substantial multi-year fellowships and assistantships; a locus of academic and social support services for minority graduate students; an atmosphere of expected success; departmental culture that supports faculty mentoring; student support groups; curricula which encompass diversity issues; and a critical mass of minority students and faculty within individual departments. {This document is out-of-print.} 
• Wagner, Ursula. "How to Increase the Number of Minority Ph.D.'s." Planning for Higher Education. Summer 1991, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 1-7. Articles notes efforts to increase the number of minority students in earning doctoral programs. There is a special focus on the McKnight Doctoral Fellowship Program at the University of Florida. 

• Adelman, Clifford.  Women and Men of the Engineering Path:  A Model for Analyses of Undergraduate Careers.  May 1998.  U.S.  Department of Education and The National Institute for Science Education.  Examines the paths students take through higher education, focusing on the field of engineering.  Provides recommendations.
• Adelman, Clifford. AAHE Bulletin. "What Proportion of College Students Earn a Degree?" October 1998, Vol. 51, No. 2, page 7. Using data from the postsecondary transcript file of the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics' High School & Beyond Sophomore Cohort longitudinal study, the author notes that national degree completion rates are very high-noting that this is an age of multi-institutional attendance and community college attendance. The author notes the merit of using the student, not the institution as the unit of measurement. 
• Alexander, B.B., Foertsch, J.F., Daffinrud, S., & Tapia, R. (In Press, Summer 2000). The Spend a Summer with a Scientist (SaS) Program at Rice University: A study of Program Outcomes and Essential Elements, 1991-1997.   Council for Undergraduate Research Quarterly. 
• American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. Women's Transitions Through Work and College.  1999.   Washington, DC:  Author.  This report explains how and why women make educational transitions.
• Anderson, Bernice Taylor, Bruschie, Barbara, A. and Pearson, Jr., Willie.  “Minority Females and Precollege Mathematics and Science:  Academic Preparation and Career Interests.”  Equity and Excellence in Education.  Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 62-70.  Focuses on underrepresented minority females and their mathematics and science academic preparation and career interests. 
• Astin, A.W., & H.S. Astin. 1993.  Undergraduate Science Education:  The Impact of Different College Environments on the Educational Pipeline in the Sciences.  Los, Angeles, CA:  Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA.
• Astin, A.W. 1993.  What Matters in College?  Four Critical Years Revisted.  San Francisco, CA:  Jossey-Bass.
• Bowen, William, Rudenstine, Neil.  1992.  In Pursuit of the PhD.  Princeton, NJ:  Princeton University Press.  Examines data gleamed from the expereinces of more than 35,000 students who entered programs in Englishy, history, political science, economics, mathematics and physics at ten leading universities between 1962 and 1986.
• Brazziel Associates.  2000.  Factors in Decisions of Underrepresented Minorities to Forego Science and Engineering Doctoral Study.  Mansfield Center, CT:  Marian Brazziel Associates.  Study presents findings from interviews conducted with 12 underpresented minority SME graduates who elected not to pursue an SME PH.D.
• Brazziel, William, F., and Brazziel, Marian, E. "Minority Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients with Junior and Community College Backgrounds." Community College Journal of Research and Practice. 1994. Vol. 18. Using the National Research Council's Survey of Earned Doctorates database, the authors analyzed individuals who began their college career as junior or community college students from a sample of all African American, Hispanic and American Indian U.S. citizen and permanent resident individuals who earned an S&E doctorate during the period 1981-1990. The authors noted that "more than half of all minority freshmen began their college careers in junior and community colleges and that this figure will increase as tuition at four-year colleges rise and family incomes fail to keep pace." 
• Brazziel, William, F., and Brazziel, Marian, E. "Broadening the Search for Minority Science and Engineering Doctoral Starts." Journal of Science Education and Technology. 1995. Vol., 4, No. 2. The authors conducted a study "that compared minority traditional (those that had completed baccalaureates at age 24 or earlier and had gone on to complete S&E Ph.D. degrees) and nontraditional (those that had completed baccalaureates at age 25 or older and had gone on to complete S&E Ph.D. degrees) science and engineering doctorate recipients and examined the extent to which recent minority S&E corporate hires were interested in returning to the campus and completing a Ph.D. degree." Common themes and implications are discussed. 
• Brown, Shirley V. and Clewell, Beatriz Chu. Project Talent Flow: The Non-SEM Field Choices of Black and Latino Undergraduates with the Aptitude for Science, Engineering and Mathematics Careers. January 1998. Final report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. This report documents why African American and Latino undergraduate students of high ability choose non-science fields. 
• Clewell, Beatriz Chu and Tinto, Vincent. 1999. Study of Doctoral Persistence Funded by the National Science Foundation. This study documents how different types of financial aid affect the time to degree and the completion of doctoral degrees. 
• Clewell, Beatriz Chu, Anderson, Bernice Taylor and Thorpe, Margaret E. Breaking the Barriers: Helping Female and Minority Students Succeed in Mathematics and Science. 1992. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. As noted in the publication's preface, "this book provides an indepth examination of the strategies, structure and operation of intervention programs for minority and female students in grades four through eight. 
• Clewell, Beatriz Chu. Retention of Black and Hispanic Doctoral Students. Part I: Personal and Background Characteristics of Persisting and Nonpersisting Black and Hispanic Graduate Students. Part II: Retention of Minority Doctoral Students: Institutional Policies and Practices. ETS Research Report 87-10. March 1987. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. 
• College Board.  1999.  Reaching the Top:  A Report of the National Task Force on Minority High Achievement.  New York:  Author.  In 1997 the College Board organized the National Task Force on Minority High Achievement to study and make recommendations on the shortage of underrepresented minority students who are achieving at academically high levels.  The Task Force concluded that the limited presences of underrepresented students amont top students is a product of several forces.  The report offers discussion and recommendations.
• Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology Development (CAWMSET).  The CAWMSET Report.  (Available in August 2000.)  Arlington:  National Science Foundation.  "The report documents the barriers that keep minorities, women, and people with disabilities from participating proportionally in science and engineering." www.nsf.gov/od/cawmset
• Henry, Celia M.  "Reinventing the Master's Degree.  Chemical and Engineering News.  May 29, 2000.  Volume 78, Number 22, pp. 65-69.  Discusses the Aflred P. Sloan Foundation's support of the development of professional master's degrees in science and mathematics.
• Council of Graduate Schools. Enhancing the Minority Presence in Graduate Education II: Assessing Progress. 1992. Washington, DC: Author. This booklet shares the outcomes of further discussions among Graduate Deans, focusing on what is actually possible within the realm of their office. Some conclusions follow: "graduate deans are playing a more active role in the development and implementation of programs designed to enhance the presence of minorities and women in graduate school; the deans are finding it easier to elicit the support of faculty in support of their efforts; an infrastructure to support minority graduate students is in place as well as activities designed to increase the presence of minority students; and the Summer Science Research Programs, the Early Identification Programs, the Minority Access to Research Careers, and the Patricia Roberts Harris Program are major contributors." The booklet provides examples of activities undertaken at various institutions to increase minority participation.  
• Council of Graduate Schools. Enhancing the Minority Presence in Graduate Education IV: Models and Resources for Minority Student Recruitment and Retention. 1992. Washington, DC: Author. This publication provides a comprehensive summary of activities and strategies to increase the diversity of graduate student populations and encourage the development of more minority faculty. The report discusses the elements (strategic plan, institutional commitment, assessment, goals, strategies, implementation, and evaluation) required to develop a successful recruitment and retention program. A resource directory of graduate school representatives responsible for the development and coordination of minority graduate student recruitment and retention programs is provided. 
• Council of Graduate Schools. Enhancing the Minority Presence in Graduate Education V: Summer Research Opportunity Programs/Voices and Visions of Success in Pursuit of the Ph.D. 1993. Washington, DC: Author. The report profiles eight U.S. graduate institutions, highlighting two SROP alumni (one beginning doctoral student and another advanced candidate) as well as one faculty member who served as an advocate and mentor. 
• Eason, Sandra H. Higher Education and Graduate Recruitment. January 1996. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southwest Educational Research Association in New Orleans, LA. A survey was administered to 66 departments chairs and 418 graduate faculty in 37 masters programs and 10 doctoral programs at an urban research university to assess student recruitment strategies, levels of involvement and philosophy of recruitment. Results indicate that issues such as faculty and space, and limited funding inhibit recruitment efforts. A frequent response to questions by faculty was "don't know," indicating that faculty were unaware of articulated graduate recruitment plans. 
• Fields, Cheryl, D. "It's Not Rocket Science." Black Issues in Higher Education. April 2, 1998. Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 18-23. Article makes use of statistical and anecdotal information to discuss that some colleges and universities are unable to find "eligible" African American undergraduates to go into SME and that when such are found, some fail to graduate. 
• Gandara, Patricia.  1995.  Over the Ivy Walls:  The Educational Mobility of Low Income Chicanos. New York:  SUNY.
• Gauchupin, Marcella and Others. "Meeting the Challenge, Overcoming the Odds: Harvard Student Panel. Canadian Journal of Native Education. 1995. Vol. 21, supplement. pp 70-82. Article chronicles the experiences of four Native American graduate students from Harvard University-their history, their motivation, their struggles, obstacles encountered, etc. 
• Hrabowksi, Freeman, Maton, Kenneth, et al.  1998.  Beating the Odds:  Raising Academically Successful African American Males. Oxford University Press. This study shows how young African American men can achieve academic success and what parents can do to help. 
• Ibarra, Robert. 2000.   Beyond Affirmative Action:  Reframing the Context of Higher Education.  University of Wisconsin Press. The author examines the Latino PhD experience across all fields. An anthropological model was developed. The model notes that issues are not discipline specific, but rather the problem is systemic and universally present in the academic culture of organizations and only manifests itself differently within different disciplines. The author contends the problem is actually a set of both cultural and cognitive variables found deeply imbedded across all the disciplines, and within much of the institutional systems 
• Kowalik, Thomas F. "What We Know about Doctoral Student Persistence." Innovative Higher Education. Vol. 13, No. 2, Spring-Summer 1989, pp. 163-71. Presents a review of the literature on traditional-aged undergraduate students' retention. 
• Leiman, Arnold and MacLachlan Anne (ongoing). A Longitudinal Study of Minority PhDs from 1980-1990 at UC Berkeley  
• Lovitts, Barbara E. Who is Responsible for Graduate Student Attrition-the Individual or the Institution? April 1996. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association, New York, New York. The author argues that attrition has less to do with what students bring to the university than with what happens to them after they have been admitted. 
• MacLachlan, Anne.(ongoing study). Graduate Education: The Experience of Women and Minorities at University of California, Berkeley, 1980-1989. The author interviewed 338 students. 
• Malcom, Shirley, Van Horne, Virginia, George, Yolanda, and Gaddy, Catherine. Losing Ground: Science and Engineering Graduate Education of Black and Hispanic Americans. 1998. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science. This technical report presents application, admission, and enrollment data on Black and Hispanic American graduate students in a science, mathematics, or engineering (SME) field for the years 1994, 1994, 1996, 1997. Data were collected from 76 higher education institutions. Report indicates a decline in the SME graduate education enrollments of African Americans and Hispanic Americans. 
• Matyas, Marsha Lakes and Malcom, Shirley (Eds.) Investing in Human Potential: Science and Engineering at the Crossroads. 1991. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science. The Presidents/Chancellors at 276 higher education institutions were surveyed as well as the directors (400) of recruitment/retention programs and of nearly 100 disabled students services. In depth interviews and case studies were conducted at select institutions. The report provides summaries of findings along with recommendations.
• McAfee, M.B.    From Their Voices:  American Indians in Higher Education and the Phenomenon of Stepping Out.  (A report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.)  1997.  New York, NY:  Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.   Interviews were conducted with graduates, former students, administrators and faculty from nine colleges and eight universities in eight western states.  The author’s focus was on the experience(s) of American Indians majoring in math, science, engineering or business.  The metaphor of stepping stones was used as a way to present ideas relative to patterns of college attendance of American Indians.  The author presents a model of the phenomenon of stepping out  (stepping into, out of, and back into higher education) to represent the college-going patterns of American Indians,  and lists recommendations to accommodate the stepping out phenomenon.
• Nerad, Maresi and Cerny, Joseph.  1999.  Ph.D.'s Ten Years Later.  Berkeley, CA:  University of California.  This study confirmed that in biochemistry, the postdoc, not the Ph.D. has become the general proving ground for excellent in academia in indstury.  The study examins the career of Ph.D. recipients in 61 research-intensive universities.
• Nerad, Maresi and Miller, Debra Sands. "Increasing Retention in Graduate and Professional Programs," in Jennifer Grant Haworth (Ed.), New Directions for Institutional Research: Assessing Graduate and Professional Education: Current Realities, Future Prospects. No. 92, Winter 1996, Jossey-Bass: New Direction for Institutional Research. The author explains her research on 61 U.S. universities regarding the career paths of those students who received their doctorates between 1983-85. 
• Nettles, Michael and Millett, Catherine.  May 1998.  Understanding for Improvement:  Finances, Experiences and Achievements of Doctoral Students.  Ann Arbor:  Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education at the University of Michigan. Cross-sectional study involving a purposive sample of students in eleven different major fields.
• Nettles Michael and Millett, Catherine.  Assessing Underrepresented Minority Student Experiences and Success in Doctoral Programs.  March 1999. Ann Arbor:  Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education at the University of Michigan.  Paper presents findings from a national study of doctoral students.  The authors examine various components of human capital and their effect upon student experiences and achievements.
• Patt, Colette. 1999. (ongoing study). The New Cut-Off: Physical Sciences Graduate Admissions After Proposition 209. University of California, Berkeley, Graduate Division & Physical Sciences Deans' Office. This study is tracking UC Berkeley students in the physical sciences who graduated in the 1990's. 
• Patterson-Stewart, Karen, E., Ritchie, Martin, H., and Sanders, Eugene, T.W. "Interpersonal Dynamics of African American Persistence in Doctoral Programs at Predominantly White Universities." Journal of College Student Development, Vol. 38, No. 5, September-October 1997, pp. 489-998. Reports on a qualitative investigation of eight African Americans' persistence in predominantly white university doctoral programs. Discusses ways in which university faculty and administration can enhance African American persistence and successful completion of the doctoral process. 
• Reichert, Monty and Absher, Martha. "Graduate Engineering Education of Underrepresented Populations." Journal of Engineering Education. July 1998, Vol. 87, No. 3. This article notes that "among all U.S. citizens, African Americans were the least likely to seek graduate degrees in physical sciences or math/computer science/engineering; took the longest time to receive a doctorate; were the least likely to attain the rank of full professor among tenured science and engineering faculty; and were the least employed doctoral recipients in the above mentioned fields." 
• Sax, Linda J.  “Retaining Tomorrow’s Scientists:  Exploring the Factors that Keep Male and Female College Students Interested in Science Careers.”  Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering.  Volume 1, 1994, pp. 45-61.   “Explores the factors related to the persistence toward science careers for those students who, as freshmen, planned on pursuing careers in the sciences.”
• Seymour Elaine, and Hewitt, Nancy, M. Talking About Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences. 1997. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. This book documents a "three-year study to establish the relative importance of the factors with greatest bearing upon the decisions of undergraduates at four-year colleges and universities to switch from SME majors to those that are not science-based. Of note, there were no major differences between institutions of different type in the nature of the problems described by their students. Issues raised fell into 23 categories, with some overlap. The metaphor of an "iceberg" was used to convey the findings. Samples of reasons for switching arise from structural or cultural sources within institutions; students' concerns about their career prospects; lack or loss of interest in science; belief that a non-SME major holds more interest; poor teaching by SME faculty; and feeling overwhelmed by the pace and load of curriculum demands. 
• Smith, Daryl and Associates.  Diversity Works:  The Emerging Picture of How Students Benefit.  1997.  Washington, DC:  AACU. This is a report, literature review and annotated bibliography of research on the impact of campus diversity on American college students.
• Stith, James H. "Making a Difference: Ethnic Diversity in Physics." Physics Today. July 1996, pp. 30-46. The author highlights the common threads that run through many successful SME higher education programs to increase the number of, recruit and retain minority students. Several examples highlighted include the following: someone on staff within the department who makes increasing the numbers a priority; faculty members/advisors who are willing to mentor; the need to form study groups; address feelings of alienation and isolation; join student organizations; and raising expectations. 
• The Mathematical Association of America, National Association of Mathematicians, with the assistance of the American Mathematical Society. Survey of Minority Graduate Students in U.S. Mathematical Sciences Departments. 1997. Washington, DC: Author. This Sloan-funded survey was conducted in the fall of 1995 and the spring of 1996 by the Mathematical Association of American and its Strengthening Underrepresented Minority Mathematics Achievement program. The survey reports information on the students' learning environments and provides recommendations. 
• Thomas, Gail, E.  “Participation and Degree Attainment of African American and Latino Students in Graduate Education Relative to Other Racial and Ethnic Groups:  An Update from Office of Civil Rights Data.”  Harvard Educational Review.  Vol. 62, No. 1, Spring 1992, pp. 45-65.  Using 1988-89 completion data, the author examines the number of SME graduate degrees awarded to black and latino students.
• Tinto, Vincent. 1993.  Leaving College:  Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition. Chicago:  University of Chicago Press.  Author develops a theory of student department and offers principles of attrition.
• Treisman, Uri with Asera, Rose. "Routes to Mathematics for African-American, Latino and Native American Students in the 1990s: The Educational Trajectories of Summer Mathematics Institute Participants," in Fisher, N., Keynes, H., and Wagreich, P. (Eds.) Changing the Culture: Mathematics in the Research Community. 1995. American Mathematical Society with the Mathematical Association of America. 
• Treisman, Uri with Fullilove, III, R.E. "Mathematics Achievement among African American Undergraduates at the University of California, Berkeley: An Evaluation of the Mathematics Workshop Program," Journal of Negro Education. Summer 1990, Vol. 59, pp. 463-478. 
• Tsapogas, John, Cahalan, Margaret.  May 1996.  Incidence of and Factors Related to Progression to Graduate School among Recent Science and Engineering Bachelor's Degree Recipients:  Results from a National Study.  Paper prepared for AIR Meeting, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
• Walters, Nancy B. Retaining Aspiring Scholars: Recruitment and Retention of Students of Color in Graduate and Professional Science Degree Programs. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Albquerque, NM, November 6-9, 1997. Dr. Walters outlines factors affecting the retention of minority students in graduate and professional science degree programs. Factors such as a supportive environment, high expectations and meaningful work were noted. 
• Watkins, Steven, F., and Warner, Isiah M. Graduate Educational Opportunities for African Americans in Chemistry. The authors argue that low African American enrollments in graduate chemistry program are the result of poor recruit programs by graduate chemistry departments at predominately Black institutions. 
• Wise Petrochenkov, Margaret. Excellence Through Diversity: Profiles of Forty-Two Ford Foundation Fellows. 1996. National Academy Press: Washington, DC. Wise of the Fellowship programs Unit in the office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel at the National Research Council interviewed a cross-section of Ford Fellows and compiled the interviews together in order to profile 42 of the more than 1,200 Ford Fellows. Their accomplishments, struggles, insights, hopes, and obstacles overcome are outlined.